Ashigaru and Swords in the Mid-Muromachi Period—Ashigaru Armament Realities and the Proliferation of kazuuchi mono (数打ち刀) After the Onin War

The Ōnin War Changed the "Main Actor" of War

The Ōnin War, which broke out in 1467, was an unprecedented civil conflict that made Kyoto a battlefield for 11 years. One of the greatest changes this war brought to Japanese military history was the rise of the "ashigaru" (foot soldiers).

Battles during the Heian, Kamakura, and early Muromachi periods were primarily cavalry warfare with samurai (bushi) as the main force. Mounted archers dominated, and foot soldiers remained largely in supporting roles. However, the prolonged urban street fighting of the Ōnin War demonstrated the effectiveness of the highly mobile ashigaru. Lightly equipped ashigaru moved about freely and increasingly established themselves as forces for arson, plundering, and small-scale surprise attacks.

This change fundamentally altered the demand structure for swords and blades. Until then, swords for samurai had been dominated by "custom-made blades" (chuumon-uchi), carefully forged by a single smith over a long period. However, to equip ashigaru with swords required mass production, low cost, and short manufacturing times. This is considered the beginning of the full-scale mass production system of "mass-produced blades" (kazuchi-tou) (See also: What are mass-produced blades).

The Ashigaru's Armament—What They Actually Carried

Information about ashigaru armament has been fragmentarily reconstructed from military chronicles, illustrated scrolls, and excavation materials. A typical ashigaru's equipment was roughly as follows.

• Primary Weapon: The spear (yari) was most common. After the Ōnin War, ashigaru units' primary weapon shifted in weight from bows to spears. The spear had low manufacturing costs and could be handled with relatively simple training, making it suitable for distribution to large ashigaru units.
• Sword as Secondary Weapon: The swords worn by ashigaru had different meanings than those worn by samurai. They are said to have been used primarily as "a last resort when a spear broke or was lost" and "to take the heads of defeated enemies." Therefore, practicality—durability, ease of handling, and cutting ability—is thought to have been prioritized over artistic and quality aspects of the blade.
• Sword Quality: Swords for ashigaru were primarily mass-produced blades. It is said that in the sword-making centers of Bizen (Okayama Prefecture) and Mino (Gifu Prefecture), mass-production systems for kazuchi-tou were established after the Ōnin War. Unlike custom-made blades, which required a master smith several months per blade, mass-produced blades were manufactured in short periods at low cost through division of labor and simplified processes.

The Mass-Production System of Kazuchi-tou—Changes in Bizen and Mino Workshops

The important major production centers for mass-produced blades were Bizen (Okayama Prefecture, Seto Inland region) and Mino (Gifu Prefecture, Seki and Mino regions).

Bizen's Mass-Production System: The Bizen sword-making group, centered on Osafune, was known for high sword production volumes even before the Ōnin War. After the Ōnin War, it is said that a transition occurred from a system where a small number of craftsmen produced high-quality work to a system where multiple craftsmen produced quantity through division of labor (See: The Ōnin-Bunmei War and the Sword Industry for details).

Bizen mass-produced blades became known as "Bizen mono" (Bizen-made), and although quality varied, it is thought that basic cutting ability and durability were ensured. Because mass supply was possible, it became one of the major supply sources when Sengoku daimyo procured a full set of weapons for ashigaru units.

Mino's Mass-Production System: The sword smiths of Mino Province (present-day Seki City area, Gifu Prefecture) are known as Seki Kanji (Seki smiths). Mino-den smiths were known for excellent cutting ability and distinctive workmanship, particularly in their hamon patterns (especially the three-cedar hamon), and it is said they maintained high production volumes even under the mass-production system (Kanemoto (Magoroku Kanemoto) is representative of the three-cedar hamon). It is said that Mino blades circulated among warlords in the eastern regions.

Ashigaru's Paths to Obtaining Swords—Battlefield Plunder and Market Purchase

It is said that ashigaru had multiple paths to obtaining swords.

• Distribution from Daimyo: Examples have been confirmed of daimyo ordering large quantities of mass-produced blades from sword-making centers and distributing them to ashigaru. This "arms distribution" served dual purposes: securing ashigaru loyalty and organizing the military unit. It is said that in some cases, "owner identification" was performed by carving the daimyo's family crest on the distributed blade or cutting a specific signature mark.
• Battlefield "Bundori" (Capture of Arms): "Bundori" (taking weapons by defeating enemies on the battlefield) was one of the important revenue sources for ashigaru. It is said that defeating a renowned samurai allowed one to obtain a high-quality blade, and selling it for cash income was common practice.
• Market Purchase: During the Sengoku period, merchants dealing in swords and sword markets developed in various regions. When ashigaru came from rural areas, they sometimes used supplementary income from busy agricultural seasons to purchase blades. It is thought that most swords circulating in markets were mass-produced blades or used blades in poor condition.

Ashigaru Armament and Structural Changes in the Sword Industry

The rise of ashigaru and the spread of mass-produced blades greatly changed the structure of the Japanese sword industry.

• The Beginning of Polarization: After the Ōnin War, the sword market clearly divided into a bipolar structure: "high-quality blades for daimyo and samurai (custom-made)" and "mass-produced blades for ashigaru and peasant soldiers." This polarization can be said to be the prototype of the distinction between "art swords" and "practical items" in today's sword market.
• Division of Labor Among Smiths: Under the mass-production system, a trend emerged toward division of labor in processes such as forging the blade from tamahagane as raw material, hardening, and polishing. It was also a period when the traditional system of one smith handling all processes coexisted with mass-production systems using division of labor.
• Expansion of Sword Distribution: Mass-produced blades circulated widely through wholesalers and sword markets in various regions. The "sword logistics" of Sengoku daimyo placing large orders at distant sword-making centers and transporting them by sea and land gradually became more established. This distribution system is thought to have been the predecessor of the Edo period sword merchant and sword wholesale system.

The ashigaru transformed swords from "possessions of a small samurai elite" to "something needed by many people participating in war." While this change promoted the mass production of the Japanese sword industry, it also had a somewhat paradoxical effect of making the traditional sword-making culture that produced fine works and masterpieces stand out as "something special." Examples of existing mass-produced blades and custom-made blades are occasionally introduced in TOUKENZA's online catalog. Those interested are encouraged to take a look at the product list.