Swords and Court Ritual in the Late Nara to Early Heian Period: How the Capital Transfers Transformed Japanese Sword Culture

Political Turmoil in the Late Nara Period and the Position of Swords

The late Nara period (770s) was a time of political turmoil in the imperial court, exemplified by the Dōkyō Incident, and also an era of political renewal by Emperors Kōnin and Kanmu. What is important in discussing sword culture of this period is the fact that the official state control system for swords, as prescribed by the ritsuryō legal code, was beginning to falter.

Under the ritsuryō system, bows, arrows, swords, and armor were placed under the jurisdiction of provincial governors (kokuishi) as state-managed weapons, and the status of individuals who could freely wear swords was clearly restricted. However, by the late Nara period, the militarization of provincial clans was advancing, and the central control system was becoming hollow. This divergence between reality and institutional design led to the emergence of samurai culture in the early Heian period.

Sword Culture During the Nagaoka-kyō Transfer Period (784–794)

The year 784, when Emperor Kanmu decided on the transfer of the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, was on the eve of a turning point in Japanese sword history. Though the imperial court at Nagaoka-kyō (near present-day Mukō and Nagaoka-kyō cities) lasted only a little over a decade, signs of change in the relationship between court ritual and weapons appeared during this brief transfer period.

Particularly noteworthy is the intensification of campaigns against the Emishi. In the Battle of Isawa in 789 (Enryaku 8), the forces of Ki no Kosami, who suffered a major defeat at the hands of Aterui, were criticized for equipment problems. This prompted discussions of military reforms, and interest in sword shape and quality increased. It is said that the need for lighter and more manageable swords, rather than heavy straight swords (chokutō), in long-distance expeditions was one of the distant causes of the curving of blades.

The Transfer to Heian-kyō (794) and the Reorganization of Sword Ritual

After the transfer to Heian-kyō in 794, Emperor Kanmu's reign advanced the systematization of court ritual. Swords were positioned as important instruments in ritual, and this was also the period when formal types of ritual swords, such as the "otateaki" and the sword of the "Naishidokoro," were systematized.

Ritual swords developed in a separate lineage from practical swords, with emphasis on decorative qualities. Among the sword collection from the Nara period preserved in the Shōsōin, there are "kazari-tachi" (decorated tachi) and "kuro-urushi-tachi" (black-lacquered tachi) adorned with gold and silver, showing a strong character as refined craftworks influenced by the continent (Tang and Silla). This lineage of ritual swords became the foundation of "tachi" culture in the Heian court.

The Eve of the Transition from Straight Swords to Curved Swords

Though the early Heian period (early 9th century) still saw straight swords (jōkotō) as the mainstream, it is believed that the transition to curved swords began during this time. As for the reasons for the transition, there are various theories, including the need for a shape suited to slashing cuts in mounted combat, contact with continental curved blades (influenced by Bohai and Tang), and improvements in steel quality due to advances in tatara ironworking technology.

A notable artifact from the early Heian period is the "warabite-tō" (bracken-hilt sword). This sword, whose hilt curves back like a bracken frond, has been found in large numbers in northeastern archaeological sites, and the theory that it represents an early form of curved sword that emerged from contact with the Emishi is prominent. Whether the warabite-tō is the direct ancestor of the later tachi is debated, but it is evidence of the existence of diverse sword forms in the early Heian period.

Swordsmiths and Manufacturing Systems of This Period

Swordsmiths of the Nagaoka-kyō and Heian-kyō periods were incorporated into an official group of sword artisans called the "tōbe," and production took place under state control. The system allowing individual swordsmiths to freely create and sell swords was established somewhat later, and swords of this period were fundamentally state products.

In the provinces, tatara ironworking was being conducted under the control of local clans, and the groundwork was being laid not only for official swordsmiths from the center but also for unique provincial sword forges to emerge. The development of these provincial forges became the foundation of the later Gokasen (five major schools: Yamashiro, Yamato, Sōshū, Bizen, and Mino).

The sword culture of the Heian transfer period occupies a transitional space between the "old continental straight-sword culture" and the "Japanese curved-sword culture that was about to be formed," and while it tends to be overlooked as an important turning point in Japanese sword history, it is an era division that should be understood.