The Transformation of Japanese Swords in the Era of Peace

With the Summer Campaign of Osaka in 1615, the curtain fell on the Sengoku period, and a stable control system under the Tokugawa shogunate was established. The arrival of this "era of peace" fundamentally transformed the nature of the Japanese sword. Its meaning shifted from a practical weapon for cutting enemies on the battlefield to a "vessel for the spirit" symbolizing the status and spirit of the samurai.

The more than 260 years of the Edo period (1603–1868) represent a unique era in the history of the Japanese sword. Why did samurai continue to wear swords in an age without warfare? And how did sword culture develop?—This article explores these questions from multiple angles.

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The Sword as "Spirit": The Integration of Bushido and the Sword

As the Edo period began, the concept that "the sword is the spirit of the samurai" became deeply embedded in society. Behind this ideology lay the theorization of bushido by figures such as Yamaga Sokō, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, and Nitobe Inazō.

In the Hagakure, recorded by Yamamoto Tsunetomo (compiled around 1716), there is the famous passage "the way of the samurai is to be found in dying," but this work simultaneously documents detailed codes regarding sword handling and etiquette. The sword was the very personality of the samurai, and leaving it on the ground or touching the blade with bare hands was considered a breach of propriety.

This "sword as spirit" ideology gave rise to strict etiquette in actual sword handling. The position of wearing the sword, the method of drawing it, the manner of sheathing it, the protocol for examining another person's sword—all of these became part of samurai education.

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The Norms of Sword Wearing: The Daishō and Samurai Status

What is most emblematic of samurai in the Edo period is the "daishō" (大小二本差し)—the style of wearing both a tachi and wakizashi simultaneously. This daishō was visible proof of samurai status, visually expressing the distinction in rank between samurai and commoners (peasants, merchants, and craftspeople).

However, the daishō was not uniform. The type, dimensions, and style of fittings of swords that could be worn were precisely regulated according to the domain and the family rank of the samurai.

Restrictions on Daimyo Houses

Daimyo were regulated according to their domains' rice production and their relationship with the Tokugawa shogunate, with restrictions extending to the ornamental fittings and materials of their swords. The "shikishō" (式正) swords used in ritual ceremonies demonstrating submission to the Tokugawa had strictly fixed forms, and unauthorized modifications were not permitted.

In the Case of Hatamoto and Gokenin

The hatamoto and gokenin, samurai in direct service to the shogun, had specific types of swords designated for the "reiken no rei" (拝謁の礼, ceremony of audience) when attending the Edo Castle. They often used different swords for castle attendance and everyday wear, and it was common for hatamoto who worked at the castle to possess multiple swords.

Commoners and Sword Wearing

As a general rule, peasants and townspeople were forbidden from wearing swords. However, there were certain exceptions: village headmen (nanushi), wealthy merchants, and physicians were sometimes granted the privilege of "myōji taikō" (苗字帯刀, surname and sword wearing). This was a special privilege granted by the shogunate or domain, serving as a status symbol indicating high social standing.

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Sword Etiquette in Samurai Ceremonial Practice

The World of "Tōrei" (Sword Etiquette)

In samurai society, ceremonial etiquette surrounding swords developed to a high degree. This is called "tōrei" (刀礼). The principal sword etiquettes are as follows:

Reiken no rei (Ceremony of audience): When meeting with the shogun or a daimyo, it was considered proper etiquette to remove one's sword and entrust it to an attendant. This demonstrated submission and trust by not bringing weapons into the presence.

Sashisoe no rei (The etiquette of sword positioning): In the presence of a superior, one would wear the sword with the blade facing inward (toward one's own body) to demonstrate lack of hostile intent.

Haiken sakuho (Protocol for sword appreciation): When appreciating another person's sword, one must always touch the blade through a cloth (fukusa). Touching the blade with bare hands not only caused rust but was considered a breach of etiquette. Furthermore, directing the blade's edge toward another person was extremely rude; proper etiquette required presenting the sword at an angle where the edge did not face the other person.

Nighttime sword placement: When retiring to sleep, the sword was always placed at the head of the bed with the blade facing toward oneself (i.e., with the edge not facing outward). This also allowed for immediate response in case of emergency.

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The Aesthetics of the Edo Sword: The Awakening of Consciousness that "The Sword is a Work of Art"

In the Edo period, with warfare gone, the relationship between samurai and sword shifted from the practical to the aesthetic. Particularly from the Genroku period (1688–1704) onward, swords came to be appreciated as works of art and collector's items.

The Development of Sword Appreciation

Sword appreciation spread from daimyo to lower-ranking samurai and even wealthy merchants. In "kaisho" (会所), entertainment and cultural salons in the mansions of daimyo, sword appreciation gatherings were held. Participants brought their prized swords and discussed the characteristics of their blades, including mei, hamon, and jihada.

Interest in Sword Fittings (Koshirae)

Beyond the blade itself, aesthetic interest in the "koshirae" (the complete set of fittings including saya, tsuka, and tsuba) increased. The Gotō family and Owari metalworkers, working on commission from the Tokugawa shogunate and powerful daimyo, created elaborate sword fittings.

In particular, the "kodōgu" (小道具)—small fittings such as menuki, fuchi-kashira, kogai, and kozuka that constitute the koshirae—came to be highly valued as works of art of the Edo period. Kodōgu crafted with advanced techniques such as chasing, inlay, and casting continue to command high prices at modern auctions.

The "Ranking" Culture of Swords

From the mid-Edo period onward, "sword rankings" (bandzuke) modeled after sumo rankings began to be published. Master craftsmen were ranked as "ōzeki" (grand champions) and "yokozuna" (grand champions), becoming topics of discussion among enthusiasts. This ranking culture served to broaden interest in swords, including among the general populace.

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The Development of Swordsmanship: Martial Arts in an Era of Peace

In the Edo period, with warfare eliminated from the battlefield, swordsmanship acquired the meaning of "spiritual training" and "physical and mental cultivation of the samurai."

The Proliferation and Development of Schools

It is said that hundreds of schools of swordsmanship existed throughout the Edo period. Famous schools include Yagyū Shinkage-ryū, Ittō-ryū, and Shintō Musō-ryū. Each domain encouraged sword training among its samurai and established domain-affiliated training halls (kensutsu keiko-sho).

The Spread of Bamboo Sword Training

In the late eighteenth century, training methods using the "shinai" (bamboo sword) and "bogu" (protective gear) became widespread. Complementing the earlier "kata" (form) training with wooden swords, practical sparring practice with the shinai was added, improving the practical skills of swordsmanship. This shinai training became the direct predecessor of modern "kendō."

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The Tension of the Bakumatsu Period and the Resurgence of the Sword

After 260 years of peace, entering the late nineteenth century (bakumatsu period), rising social tension caused the sword to reclaim its meaning as a "practical weapon." Activists advocating for the emperor and opposing foreign influence dispersed across the domains, and assassinations became frequent.

Swordsmen of the bakumatsu period including Okada Izo, known as "Hitonkirizao," the Shinsengumi under Kondō Isao, and Tanaka Shinbei became active. The swords they favored—Nagasone Kotetsu, Kiyomaro, and Koyama Munetsugu—are still highly regarded today as "legendary swords of the bakumatsu period."

When this tumultuous bakumatsu period ended with the Meiji Restoration, the sword was again forced to confront questions of social meaning. However, the deep aesthetic sensibility for swords and the culture of aesthetic appreciation that the 260 years of Edo had cultivated were inherited into the modern age after the Edict of Sword Abolition in the form of "the Japanese sword as a work of art."

In essence, the sword culture of the Edo period was a culture of "elegance in peacetime." Precisely because there was no warfare, the sword was polished, appreciated, and became a symbol of etiquette and aesthetics. This paradox is what makes the Japanese sword the world's only "combat craft object."