The Birth of Shinshin-to and Mito Thought—The Bakumatsu Sword Revival Movement, Yamaura Kiyomaro, and the Ikeda-ya Incident

The Background of Sword Revival——The Influence of Mito Learning and National Learning

From the mid-Edo period onward, as a prolonged era of peace continued, the interest of the samurai class in swords transformed from practical concerns to formal and decorative ones. However, as the 19th century arrived, this trend underwent significant change. Behind this lay the rise of two intellectual movements: "Mito Learning" (Mito-gaku), which developed centered on the Mito Domain, and "National Learning" (Kokugaku), systematized by Motoori Norinaga and others.

Mito Learning was a scholarly movement that originated with the compilation of the "Dai Nihon Shi" (Great History of Japan) commissioned by Tokugawa Mitsukuni (Mito Kōmon), and in the 19th century, through scholars such as Fujita Yūkoku and Fujita Tōko (father and son) and Aizawa Seishisai, it culminated in the Sonnō Jōi philosophy of revering the emperor and expelling barbarians. Aizawa Seishisai's "New Theory" (Shinron, 1825), prompted by the approach of foreign ships, was a treatise advocating veneration of the emperor and exclusion of foreign enemies, and was read by many patriots. In this ideology, the Japanese sword was reevaluated not as a mere weapon but as a symbol of Shinto sanctity and the spirit of bushidō.

National Learning, too, in seeking a return to ancient Japanese culture and spirituality, fostered an intellectual climate that revered swords as "the soul of warriors" (monofu no tamashii). As these intellectual currents converged, a rapid groundswell among samurai for a "return to koto" and "spiritual revival of swords" took hold.

The Birth and Characteristics of Shinshin-Tō

The history of swords during the Edo period is broadly divided into three periods: "koto" (old swords), "shintō" (new swords), and "shinshin-tō" (newer swords). Koto refers to swords from before the Muromachi period, shintō refers to swords from 1596 (Keichō era) onward, and shinshin-tō refers to swords created from around 1804–1830 (Bunka-Bunsei era) onward.

The swordsmiths of the shinshin-tō period sought to restore the technical essence of koto that had been forgotten throughout the Edo period. Particularly, they pursued the recreation of the "gūnome midare-ba" (interlocking-eye irregular hada pattern) seen in swords from the Kamakura and Nanboku-chō periods and the "nie-strong jihada" (steel base). This was not merely technical archaism but also aimed at a spiritual "revival of the martial way."

An adherence to materials was another major characteristic of shinshin-tō. Many swordsmiths rejected the Western iron and refined iron that had become widespread after the early modern period, insisting instead on using tamahagane (jeweled steel) made by traditional tatara iron smelting. The return to tamahagane was both a technical choice and an ideological declaration of resistance to foreign civilization.

Master Swordsmiths Representative of the Bakumatsu Period

Among the representative swordsmiths of the shinshin-tō era, foremost should be mentioned Yamaura Kiyomaro (1813–1854). Kiyomaro, from Shinano Province (present-day Nagano Prefecture), went to Edo and established his own forging technique, earning the epithet "the greatest swordsmith of the Bakumatsu period." His swords were characterized by a fine jihada surface, with hamon patterns featuring strong notare and interlocking gūnome designs, and were passionately supported by samurai of the Bakumatsu period. Multiple works are designated as Important Cultural Properties today, but he died at the young age of 42, and his final years remain shrouded in poverty and mystery.

Koyama Munetatsu (1804–1876) was a swordsmith who served the Aizu Domain and was known for his archaistic style influenced by Mito. His solidly constructed swords, which emphasized practicality, were widely favored by samurai in the Tōhoku and northern Kantō regions. Aizu Domain's fierce resistance during the Boshin War was deeply connected with Munetatsu's swordsmithing culture.

Important as a pioneer of shinshin-tō was Taikei Naotane (1778–1857). As an Edo swordsmith with deep ties to National Learning scholars, he was a pioneer who systematically studied koto and applied those insights to his own creations. His work had a profound influence on later swordsmiths.

The Beloved Swords of Bakumatsu Patriots

During the turbulent Bakumatsu period, many famous patriots and samurai wielded renowned swords as they traversed the stage of history.

The sword said to have been favored by Shinsengumi commander Kondō Isao was a Nagasone Kotetsu. Kotetsu was a swordsmith active in Edo during the Kanbun-Enpo era (late 17th century), renowned for the sharpness and durability of his blades. However, the authenticity of Kondō's Kotetsu has been questioned by later scholars, and it remains uncertain.

The sword that Shinsengumi vice-commander Hijikata Toshizo carried throughout his life was an Izumi no Kami Kanesada. It is said to have been made by Nosada, a swordsmith associated with Aizu Domain, and Hijikata carried it through the Boshin War and the Battle of Hakodate.

Regarding Shinsengumi captain Okita Sōji, there is a famous legend that he favored a Kamakura-period masterpiece called Kiku Ichimonji Norimune, but historical evidence is scant. A sword recorded as having actually been used by him is documented to be by Kashū Kiyomitsu.

Sakamoto Ryōma, on the anti-shogunate side, was notably devoted to modernization, and in his later years often carried a saber (Western sword) or revolver instead. It is recorded that he returned fire with a revolver during the Teradaya Incident (1866), an episode symbolizing the historical transition away from the era of exclusive reliance on the Japanese sword.

The Ikeda-Ya Incident and the Flowering of Swordmaster Culture

An indispensable event in any account of Bakumatsu swordmaster culture is the Ikeda-Ya Incident, which occurred on June 5, 1864 (Genji 1).

The Shinsengumi, having received intelligence that Sonnō Jōi patriots were gathering at the inn "Ikeda-Ya" at Sanjo-kobashi in Kyoto to plan arson and the abduction of the imperial court, sent a squad led by Kondō Isao to raid the premises. After fierce swordplay, several people including Chōshū samurai Yoshida Toshimaro were cut down, and many were captured. Katsura Kogoro (later Kido Takayoshi), who was hiding elsewhere, escaped.

The incident both revealed to the world the martial prowess of the Shinsengumi and was rooted in the flourishing dojo culture of the Bakumatsu period. The "Tennen Rishin-ryū," the sword school taught to Kondō, Hijikata, and others, was a sword style that spread throughout Musashi and Sagami provinces and was notable for its practical dojo culture open to commoners including peasants.

It is said that hundreds of dojos existed in Edo during the Bakumatsu period. The Genwu-kan dojo of the "Hokushin Ittō-ryū" school, perfected by Chiba Shusaku, was especially popular, and Sakamoto Ryōma also trained there. Many schools including Shintō Munen-ryū and Kagami Shin'mei-ryū competed for dominance, and sword training spread beyond samurai to townspeople and peasants.

The Sword Abolition Edict and the New Life of Swords

After the Meiji Restoration, the new government, in its drive for modernization, issued the Sword Abolition Edict (Haitō-rei) in 1876 (Meiji 9). The samurai's privilege to wear swords was abolished, and the Japanese sword's role as a practical weapon came to an end. The Satsuma Rebellion (1877), where samurai led by Saigō Takamori wielded swords against the modern weapons of the government army, symbolizes the literal end of the age of swords.

Paradoxically, however, the Sword Abolition Edict became the catalyst for reevaluating the Japanese sword as a "work of art." From practical swords to artistic swords—in this transformation, the masterpieces left by Bakumatsu swordsmiths were protected as cultural properties and continue to be cherished today.

The masterpieces of shinshin-tō, including those by Kiyomaro and Munetatsu, are now housed in institutions such as the Tokyo National Museum and the Japanese Sword Museum, where they continue to shine as crystallizations of the spirit and technique born of the turbulent Bakumatsu era. Even in 2026, opportunities to view these masterpieces are regularly provided, and the flame of "martial revival" lit by Mito Learning and National Learning is surely being passed down to the present day in the form of sword art.