Shimonoseki War

Shimonoseki War — Symbol of Jōi and the Clash of Modern Military Power

From May 1863 to September 1864, a series of military clashes involving the Chōshū domain (present-day Yamaguchi Prefecture) over control of the Kanmon Strait are collectively known as the "Shimonoseki War" (also called the "Bakan War"). In particular, the incident on September 5, 1864 (the 5th day of the 8th lunar month), when 17 Allied warships from Britain, the United States, France, and the Netherlands simultaneously bombarded the Chōshū coastal artillery batteries, is recorded in history as a symbolic event demonstrating how the jōi movement of the late Edo period was completely overwhelmed by the modern military power of the Western powers.

Jōi Implementation Edict and Chōshū's Bombardment of Foreign Ships — The First Shimonoseki Incident (1863)

On May 10, 1863 (lunar calendar), the Chōshū domain's artillery batteries fired upon the American merchant vessel USS Pembroke as it sailed through the Kanmon Strait. Subsequently, on May 23, they fired upon the French dispatch ship Chansang, and on May 26, they fired upon the Dutch warship Medusa. The Chōshū domain—which harbored numerous radical royalist jōi advocates—sought to seize political leadership by executing the "Implementation of Jōi" that Emperor Kōmei had commanded the shogunate to carry out. These cannon attacks had a profound impact on foreign nations. The American warship USS Wyoming entered Shimonoseki harbor on July 16 and conducted retaliatory bombardment, and the French fleet also dispatched landing forces that temporarily occupied the Chōshū artillery batteries. However, Chōshū rebuilt the artillery batteries and maintained its blockade policy of the Kanmon Strait.

Kusaka Genzui and Kurashima Matabe — Jōi Advocates Who Fell at Shimonoseki

Among the Chōshū domain activists involved in the Shimonoseki War, Kusaka Genzui and Kurashima Matabe were particularly significant. Kusaka Genzui (1840–1864) was one of the most accomplished disciples of Yoshida Shōin and was called, together with Takasugi Shinsaku, one of the "Two Pillars" of the Shōka Village School. During the Kinmon Incident (Gate of the Clams Incident) in July 1864, he led the Chōshū forces in an assault on the imperial palace, and when the situation turned unfavorable, he took his own life. He was 25 years old. Kurashima Matabe (1817–1864) was a central figure of Chōshū's radical jōi faction and was killed in action commanding Chōshū forces during the Kinmon Incident. Other Shōka Village School activists, including Yoshida Toshimaru and Irie Kuichi, also lost their lives one after another in the turbulent current of the jōi movement.

Composition of the Four-Nation Allied Fleet and Retaliatory Attack — The Second Shimonoseki War of 1864

On September 5, 1864 (the 5th day of the 8th lunar month), a combined fleet of 17 warships from Britain, France, the Netherlands, and the United States (with over 280 guns) deployed in the Kanmon Strait and launched a simultaneous bombardment of the Chōshū coastal artillery batteries. The Chōshū batteries (with over 60 guns) returned fire, but the overwhelming disparity in firepower was evident, and within two days of bombardment, the Chōshū batteries fell silent one by one. On September 6, approximately 2,500 British, French, and Dutch land troops came ashore, occupied the batteries, and dismantled and captured all of the artillery pieces. Chōshū's organized resistance continued until September 8, but the Chōshū forces were completely defeated by the overwhelming military power of the Allied forces. The Allied fleet also suffered significant casualties, with approximately 70 killed or wounded in the landing operation.

Takasugi Shinsaku's Peace Negotiations — Damage Minimization Through Clever Strategy and Awakening to the West

After the Allied fleet seized Shimonoseki, the domain authorities selected Takasugi Shinsaku (1839–1867) as their negotiator. Although Takasugi lacked English proficiency and had no diplomatic experience, he approached the negotiations with unwavering resolve. He shifted the responsibility to the shogunate, arguing that the Chōshū domain lacked independent authority to pay reparations, thus buying time to prevent further attacks by the Allied fleet. The demand for three million dollars in reparations was eventually settled with the shogunate assuming the burden (though in reality, the shogunate did not pay the full amount). Through these negotiations, Takasugi witnessed firsthand the massive size and firepower of the Allied warships, became convinced of the impossibility of jōi, and recognized instead the necessity of a modern army armed with Western technology. This experience led to the Kōzenji Temple Uprising in 1865—a coup d'état by the progressives that overthrew the conservative faction within the Chōshū domain—and became the driving force for promoting modern military reforms centered on the Kiheitai militia.

The Shimonoseki War and Swords — The Blades Carried by Jōi Advocates on the Eve of Modernization

The battle fought by Chōshū samurai in the Shimonoseki War once again demonstrated that the Japanese sword was utterly powerless against modern artillery. At the artillery batteries in the Kanmon Strait, cannon fire was paramount, and the samurai's swords had no tactical significance. However, many of the activists involved in the Shimonoseki War were deeply connected to sword culture. Kusaka Genzui studied swordsmanship under Yoshida Shōin and embodied his master's spirit—"If one is assured of immortal fame in death, one should die at any time"—by taking his own life during the Kinmon Incident. Takasugi Shinsaku was also known as a swordsman and never parted with his sword even in his later years. Takasugi's beloved swords remain in Yamaguchi Prefecture today and are carefully preserved as artifacts of late Edo period activist culture.

Most of the swords carried by the disciples of the Shōka Village School based in Chōshū were likely either works by bladesmiths from Suō and Nagato provinces, or famous swords procured from Kyoto and Ōsaka. The Chōshū domain controlled the Kanmon Strait, a vital point in maritime trade, and many swords and weapons flowed in through merchant vessels and arms ships passing through. The Shimonoseki sword market remained active throughout the late Edo period, with bladesmiths and sword dealers operating along the Kanmon Strait to meet the demands of the activists.

Historical Significance of the Shimonoseki War — A Decisive Turn Toward the Overthrow of the Shogunate and the Meiji Restoration

Like the Satsuma-British War, the Shimonoseki War marked the end of the royalist jōi movement. First, the Chōshū domain completely abandoned its jōi policy and shifted to a line favoring the overthrow of the shogunate and royalism. Second, Takasugi Shinsaku orchestrated an internal coup through the Kōzenji Temple Uprising (1865) and promoted the construction of a modern army with the Kiheitai as its core force. Third, the foundation was laid for the establishment of the Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance (1866).

Confronting the defeat at Shimonoseki, Chōshū adopted a modernization strategy of "countering the West with Western power," eventually directing its military strength toward the overthrow of the shogunate and the Meiji Restoration. From autumn 1864, when the Shimonoseki batteries fell silent, to the Meiji Restoration of 1868 was merely four years. In present-day Shimonoseki, along with Akama Shrine, the Dannoura Ancient Battlefield, and Shunpanro, monuments commemorating the Shimonoseki War remain, preserving this historic stage where the late Edo period's jōi movement ended in spectacular defeat.

Chōshū's Sword Industry and the Shimonoseki War — Sword Distribution Through the Kanmon Strait

The Chōshū domain controlled the Kanmon Strait, a vital point in maritime trade, and many swords and weapons flowed in through merchant vessels and arms ships passing through. The Shimonoseki sword market remained active throughout the late Edo period, with bladesmiths and sword dealers operating along the Kanmon Strait to meet the demands of the activists. Most of the swords carried by disciples of Yoshida Shōin were likely created by bladesmiths from Chōshū and Suō (present-day Yamaguchi Prefecture) or obtained from Kyoto and Ōsaka. Several swords transmitted as Takasugi Shinsaku's beloved blades are preserved today in museums and shrines throughout Yamaguchi Prefecture as part of a collection of late Edo period activist swords.

It is also said that the sword held by Kusaka Genzui when he took his own life during the Kinmon Incident embodied the spirit of his master, Yoshida Shōin. After their master's death (1859), the disciples of the Shōka Village School carried in their hearts Shōin's words: "There has never been one who, with sincerity, failed to move Heaven," and walked the path of jōi while wearing their swords. The Shimonoseki War was the ultimate military expression of that spirit, and simultaneously the occasion when that spirit transformed into a new form—the construction of modern military power.

The Lineage of Chōshū Swords — The Suō Smithing Tradition and Late Edo Period Demand for Blades

Chōshū (Suō and Nagato provinces) has long been known as a center for metalworking, and Suō bladesmiths conducted active sword-making throughout the Muromachi and Sengoku periods. As the jōi movement intensified during the late Edo period, demand for swords within the Chōshū domain surged rapidly. Near the Shōka Village School in Hagi, where figures like Yoshida Shōin, Takasugi Shinsaku, and Kusaka Genzui pursued their studies, bladesmiths established workshops and continued forging practical swords to meet the needs of the activists. After the Kiheitai was formed, militia organizations open to all social classes required large numbers of swords, spears, and guns, and Chōshū bladesmiths and metalworkers worked day and night to meet this demand.

Many of the swords worn by the artillery battery soldiers who were annihilated by the Allied fleet in the Shimonoseki War were likely practical blades produced by Suō and Nagato metalworkers. Records remain of Chōshū soldiers attempting to resist with swords until the very end when the Allied landing forces seized the batteries, and the land campaign of the Shimonoseki War is remembered as the final phase when late Edo period samurai fought wielding both modern firearms and swords simultaneously.